Y2k Essays (2431 words) - Calendars, Software Bugs, COBOL, Hazards

Y2k Less than two years until the year 2000. Two seemingly small digits may turn January 1, 2000 from a worldwide celebration into a universal nightmare. With computers mistaking the year 2000 for 1900, virtually all businesses that use dates will be affected. Not only will the companies be affected, but they are paying millions upon millions of dollars in order for computers to recognize the difference between the years 2000 and 1900. The year 2000 computer bug is a huge problem that our world must face. In order to explain how to solve the millennium bug, it is a good idea to be informed about exactly what the year 2000 problem is. The year 2000 industry expert, Peter de Jager, described the problem quite well. We programmed computers to store the date in the following format: dd/mm/yy. This only allows 2 digits for the year. January 1, 2000 would be stored as 01/01/00. But the computer will interpret this as January 1, 1900- not 2000 (de Jager 1). The '19' is hard-coded into computer hardware and software. Since there are only 2 physical spaces for the year in this date format, after '99', the only logical choice is to reset the number to '00'. The year 2000 problem is unlike any other problem in modern history for several reasons. William Adams points out some of the most important ones. Time is running out- the Year 2000 is inevitable! The problem will occur simultaneously worldwide, time zones withstanding. It affects all languages and platforms, hardware & software. The demand for solutions will exceed the supply. Survivors will survive big, losers will lose big. There is no 'silver bullet' that is going to fix things (Adams 2). It is too big and too overwhelming even for [Bill Gates and] Microsoft (Widder 3). Separate, any one of these points makes Y2K, a common abbreviation for the year 2000 problem, an addition to the obstacle. Combined, they form what seems more like a hideous monster than an insignificant bug. The impact of Y2K on society is enormous, bringing the largest companies in the world to their knees, pleading for a fix at nearly any cost. The modern world has come to depend on information as much as it has on electricity and running water. Fixing the problem is difficult because there are [less than] two years left to correct 40 years of behavior (de Jager 1). Alan Greenspan has warned that being 99 percent ready isn't enough (Widder 2). Chief Economist Edward Yardeni has said that the chances for a worldwide recession to occur because of Y2K are at 40% (Widder 3). Senator Bob Benett (Republican, Utah) made a good analogy about the potential of the problem. In the 1970's, oil was the energy that ran our world economy. Today it runs on the energy of information. He later said, To cripple the technological flow of information throughout the world is to bring it to a virtual standstill (Widder 3). The potential of the problem in everyday life is alarming. Imagine making a loan payment in 1999 for a bill that is due in 2000. The company's computers could interpret the '00' as 1900 and you would then be charged with 99 years of late fees (Moffitt & Sandler 48). If the year 2000 problem isn't solved, there could be no air traffic, traffic lights, no lights in your company, companies could not produce goods, no goods delivered to the stores, stores could not send you bills, you could not send bills to anyone else. Business [could] come to a halt (de Jager 1). The costs of fixing Y2K are staggering. The Gartner Group estimates that costs per line of code to be between $1.50 and $2.00 (Conner 1). It is not uncommon for a single company to have 100,000,000 lines of code (de Jager 6). Capers Jones, an expert who has studied software costs for over ten years, estimates total worldwide costs to be $1,635,000,000,000 (One-trillion, 635 billion dollars) (Jones 58). To put this number into perspective, if five people were to spend $100 for every second of every day, 24 hours a day, 365 days a year, it would take them about 100 years to finish the task! The

Created in Gods Image Essay Example

Created in Gods Image Essay Example Created in Gods Image Essay Created in Gods Image Essay Created In The Image of God Wendy Butz, RN, BSN THEO 532, September 13, 2011 Malone University I was raised attending Baptist churches and have listened to many ministers talk about â€Å"man† being created in God’s image. I know we are created in God’s image because the Bible (Barker, 1995) tells us this in Genesis 1:26 27, (26) â€Å"Then God said, ‘Let us make man in our image, in our likeness, and let them rule over the fish of the sea and the birds of the air, over the livestock, over all the earth, and over all the creatures that move along the ground. † (27) â€Å"God created man in his own image, in the image of God he created him; male and female he created them. † Ultimately the question is what does being created in God’s image truly mean? Are we like God in many different aspects, or does it simply mean we have some physical resemblance to God? Until taking this class, I never really formed a belief of my own or had a good understanding of how we image or are like God. This paper will discuss my understanding of what it means for humans to be created in the image of God, and the implications this understanding has for me as a nurse and serving others. Created In God’s Image I believe that to be created in God’s image means that, like God, we are social beings with the ability to love. I know from scripture in the Bible that talks about the Trinity, the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, that God is social. I agree with Hoekema (1986, p. 75) when he states that â€Å"man† should function in three relationships. The first, and most important relationship, is our relationship with God. The stronger our relationship with God, the more we devote ourselves to Him, the stronger our other relationships grow. The second relationship is one with our fellow â€Å"man†. Luke 10:27 says, â€Å"He answered: ‘Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your strength and will all you mind’, and ‘Love your neighbor as yourself. ’† The third relationship is that with and over nature. God gave â€Å"man† dominion over the earth just as God rules the heavens and the earth. I also believe that â€Å"man† has went through different stages of being like God since creation, and that man images God a little differently in each stage. In the beginning, when Adam and Eve were sinless they not only imaged God in their relationship with God, with each other, and with nature, but also with characteristics they possessed such as righteousness and holiness. After the â€Å"Fall†, â€Å"man† is still made in the image of God. He still possesses the ability to love, to be a social being and have relationships with God, fellow man, and nature. However, he is corrupted by sin and is no longer righteous and holy. Instead of having a relationship with God, sinning man disobeys God and even worships idols. Instead of loving his neighbor as himself, sinning man lies to, cheats, and even murders his fellow man. Instead of caring for and nurturing nature, sinning man exploits the earth. John 3:16 says, â€Å"For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life. † God sent his son, Jesus Christ, the perfect image of God so that we may know Him and may be redeemed. There are many verses in the Bible that refer to Jesus Christ as being the exact representation of God (2 Corinthians 4:4, Hebrews 1:3, Colossians 1:15). Shelly Miller (2006, p. 78) point out and talk about Jesus as being a relational being. He was born into a human family and community yet scripture clearly describes his relationship with God, as the Son of God. There are many verses that show us the characteristics and virtues that Christ possessed like righteousness, holiness, and the greatest of these, love (1 Peter 1:16, John 13:34 35). We see Jesus’ love for God and his love for man. Hoekema (1986, p. 22) states, â€Å"If it is true that Christ perfectly images God, then the heart of the image of God must be love. For no man ever loved as Christ loved. † He loved us so much that he gave his life and died for us, so that we may have eternal life. Because of God’s grace, we have Jesus Christ as an example of how we are to live our lives. Jesus shows us that we should be praising and glorifying God in all things, and that our relationship with God, prayer and devotion, should come first. Jesus shows us that we should love every human being, putting them above ourselves, and humbly serving others. When we are imaging God, others should be able to see God’s love, kindness, and goodness in us (Hoekema, 1986, p. 7). While on this earth we will never perfectly image God, but we should seek to be Christ-like. God created the characteristics that make us unique. Christ-likeness is about developing our character and spiritual maturity. When the Holy Spirit lives inside us we have the power, love, faith and wisdom to transform our character and grow spiritually. I believe that it is on ly after our human body dies, and we enter heaven, that we once again image God as â€Å"man† did at creation. We are once again sinless. Serving Others I became a nurse because of my compassion for and my desire to help others. In Mark 10: 43 – 45, Jesus says, â€Å"Not so with you. Instead, whoever wants to become great among you must be your servant, and whoever wants to be first must be slave of all. For even the Son of Man did not come to be served, but to serve, and to give his life as a ransom for many. † As a nurse it is my responsibility and my desire to serve other. I had never thought about it before but in doing so, in serving others as Christ did, I am imaging God. Nursing is unique, and different from medicine, in that it focuses on caring for the person as a whole: spiritual, psychological, social, and physical. Shelly Miller (2006, p. 16) are correct when they say that â€Å"the role of nursing grew out of a Christian understanding of the human person as created in the image of God and viewed the body as a living unity and the temple of the Holy Spirit. † If we only see people as isolated individuals and cannot see them in their wholeness, we as nurses cannot care for them adequately. I have always believed that each human being is created by and loved by God. We all possess the ability to love, and we are commanded to love our neighbors as ourselves. Some call it following the â€Å"Golden Rule† or doing unto others as you would have done unto you. Therefore, no matter what situation I am in with a patient, I try to see the image of God in them and I try to be the image of God for them. I love Shelly Miller’s (2006, p. 17 18) definition of Christian nursing, â€Å"a ministry of compassionate care for the whole person, in response to God’s grace toward a sinful world, which aims to foster optimum health (shalom) and bring comfort in suffering and death for anyone in need. Because of sin, it is sometimes hard for me to see others as being created in God’s image and or allow the image of God to be seen in me. But by the grace of God and the power of the Holy Spirit, I am able to transform my character and grow spiritually. The more I grow spiritually, the stronger my relationship with God, and the easier it is for me to see others through God’s eyes. I agree with Shelly Miller (2006, p. 77) whe n they said, â€Å"To be created in the image of God means that we must look to God for our meaning, purpose and direction. It also makes us thinking, feeling, willing, relational creatures who reflect these attributes of our Creator. In order to understand ourselves in any depth, we must first look to God to know what he intended us to be. † I believe I am on this earth because God has a plan for my life. I may not know exactly what it is, but I am here to fulfill his purpose. I pray that God’s will be done in my life. I know I can do all things through God who strengthens me. Hoekema (1986) states, â€Å"Through us God works out his purposes on this earth. In us people should be able to encounter God, to hear his word, and to experience his love. I pray that by trying to be Christ-like, that not only do my patients, but my family, co-workers, and anyone I meet, sees and experiences God’s love through me. Conclusion This paper has discussed my understanding of what it means to be created in God’s image. We are like God in that we have the ability to love. Our first love should be for God. We should then love others as ourselves. Like Hoekema (1986), I believe one way man images God is as a social being and functioning as part of three relationships, one with God, one with fellow man, and one with nature. I also believe there are stages that man went through since creation and that man images God a little differently in each stage. At creation man was holy and righteous, without sin. After the â€Å"Fall† man is corrupted by sin and is no longer righteous and holy. Then, through Jesus Christ, we are redeemed and with the Holy Spirit can seek spiritual maturity and Christ-likeness. In the end, we do not image God as we did in the beginning until we enter Heaven. This paper also discussed how being created in God’s image impacts how I serve others. I see, not only my patients, but all people as children of God. I believe he created each of us and loves each of us. As a nurse, I believe I am doing God’s will and fulfilling his purpose for my life. References Barker, K. (Ed. ). (1995). The Holy Bible, New International Version (10th ed. ). Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. Hoekema, A. A. (1986). Created in Gods Image. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. Shelly, J. A. , Miller, A. B. (2006). Called to Care: A Christian Theology of Nursing (2nd ed. ). Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press.

Drug Safety Evaluation and Pharmacovigilance Assignment

Drug Safety Evaluation and Pharmacovigilance - Assignment Example The systems that are used to assess post-marketing events include medical record databases or computerized claims, reports and pre marketing studies. Drug toxicity is frequently a major safety issue for an investigational new drug. This may occur as an unexpected reaction to a nontoxic drug or it may be an expected consequence of the intrinsic toxicity of a drug, taken in a sufficiently large dose (Berlin, 2008). It is the function of pharmaceutical research companies to take the path from understanding a disease to bringing a safe and effective treatment to patients. To ensure that collection of data is complete and to protect the safety of study participants, various processes are put in place during clinical trials (Meadows, 2006). The completeness of data is important in developing an understanding of the advantages and side effects of a new medicine (Meadows, 2006). With one or more solutions at hand, researchers turn their attention to testing them extensively to determine if they should move on to testing in humans. Efficacy and safety of investigational new drugs have an inherent deficiency in the inability to detect major, rare and adverse effects (Talbot, 2011). The limitations of these safety data for predicting post authorization safety profiles must be a consideration. These pre-marketing clinical trial limitations include lack of globally accepted gold standards for determining whether a signal on drug safety represents true risk. While the regulatory bodies have well established regulatory statutes, standards of ascertaining safety are heterogeneous (Edwards & Tilson, 2005). There is limited statistical power in determining the specific harm due to lack of statistical significance in the selected population. The selected patient group is small and excludes patients who are at a greater risk. There is limited generalizability since the study participants are carefully selected. There is a strict criterion of selecting whom to include

The Art of Business in the 21st Century Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Art of Business in the 21st Century - Essay Example Recognizing the value of information to the 21st century business, the paper recommends the use of ERP software for business. Every enterprise strives to be profitable and dominant in its industry, but it is only those firms that continually strive to understand their areas of operation through application of industry research and innovation that eventually register significant success. Michael Porter a professor at the Harvard Business School suggests a model that can enable business to understand the key drivers or factors, which can contribute to business success and competitive advantage. Porter’s value-chain model represents a framework that can enable a business analyze specific activities, which will create value and guarantee competitive advantage. First and foremost, the business has to analyze its inbound logistics and processes that include the processes of receiving goods and raw materials, storage and inventory control as well as transportation scheduling. The bus iness must aim at bringing efficiency and effectiveness by changing and improving inbound logistic processes. It therefore calls for innovation and creativity on the part of everybody within the organization. Inbound logistics represent one side of the coin, outbound logistics, which entails all the activities necessary to get the completed product to the clients, such as warehousing, order fulfillment, transportation and distribution management, must also be looked into. Streamlining inbound and outbound processes will guarantee efficiency. Another area that the business must seek to improve on a continually basis is its operations. This includes machining, packaging, assembly, equipment maintenance, testing and any other value-creating activities that seek to transform the inputs into the finished product (Porter 3). Customers need to be aware of the existing products that the firm produces. Therefore, marketing and sales department is an indispensable part any business that wants to be profitable. Sales and marketing entails all activities related with getting buyers to buy the product including pricing, channel selection, retail management advertising, selling and promotion. The business must also look into its service delivery. Service delivery involves all activities that aim at enhancing and maintaining a product's value. This also includes customer support, repair services, management of spare parts and upgrading. In addition to service delivery, the enterprise must streamline its procurement processes. These processes include the procurement of raw materials, servicing, spare parts, buildings and machines. A successful business also takes advantage of technology. Therefore, the business must be able to budget for technology development to support the value chain activities. Technology development initiatives may include research and development, process, automation as well as design and redesign. Lastly, the general management, legal, planning managem ent, finance, accounting, quality management, public affairs, which form the firm's infrastructure must be aligned in a way so as to provide for efficient business operation. Porter also continues to argue that a business is usually affected by a number of forces that will either act positively to ensure business success or if

Risk Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Risk Management - Essay Example This proposal had been blocked by local bodies in the 90s, citing health hazards. To overcome strong resentment, the government was more than willing to develop partnerships with potential candidate sites. Geological disposal is a long-term waste management option involving the placement of radioactive waste in an engineered repository at between 200 and 1000 metres underground where rock structures provide a barrier against the escape of radioactivity. This process has been successful implemented in many countries in the west and the UK has also been a major beneficiary of this technique. However, there remains a core group in UK who find this hard to believe and have blocked moves by the government to implement it in many communities around UK. The UK has a history of failure of finding an acceptable site for the disposal of intermediate and high level radioactive waste (ILW and HLW). Limited space and local opposition are two factors that contribute to this problem. Under the circumstances, the largest volumes of waste are stored at the Sellafield site in West Cumbria, in addition to significant volumes of waste stored at the various nuclear power stations around the country. This is a temporary solution as, in addition to this waste, created through fifty years of nuclear operations, will be the waste produced by the decommissioning of the older generation of nuclear facilities. The current estimate of the total radioactive waste inventory after decommissioning is complete is around 238,400 m3 of ILW and 2,710 m3 of HLW. Higher activity waste from the nuclear, chemical, and biological industries, involved in military uses and academic research, is to be managed through long term geological disposal. This involves placing radioactive and other toxic wastes in facilities deep underground, where the rock structures will provide a barrier against radioactivity. The decision was in keeping with the recommendation of the Committee on Radioactive Waste Management (CoRWM) in July. Geological disposal was identified by CoRWM as being the option that would perform best in terms of security and protecting the public and the environment. In order to safeguard public interests, planning and development of geological disposal will be based on: 1. The Nuclear Decommissioning Authority with shoulder all responsibilities and accountabilities to address

Theres One In Every Group :: essays research papers

There's one in every Group As time passes many of us will experience an array of trials and tribulations. As we go on our many journeys though out life you’ll find that you have to be strong to make it though hard times. During Elaine’s adolescence’s she is abused physically and mentally by her peers, but later gains self-confidence. Many people may find the novel Cat’s Eye by Margaret Atwood to be very disturbing at certain times in the book. When we are first introduced to Elaine, we learn that she is a shy, young girl that doesn't have friends, all she had was her brother Stephen and her Parents. The war has just ended, and Elaine and her family have finally got a house to call there own. The only thing that Elaine is unhappy about is that she has no friends. But that would soon change. Elaine meets 3 girls from he neighborhood Grace, Cordelia, and Carol, and these are the three girls that would change Elaine's life forever. As the friendship between the 4 girls gets older, we begin to see a change. Cordelia slowly begins to take charge of the group, becoming the ringleader. " Don't do it like that or Cordelia will punish you" is the attitude that you begin to get. As time carries on in the book we see that Elaine is the one that is always getting singled out, the one that is always being picked on. The 4 girls decided to put on a play, Elaine plays the headless Mary Queen of Scots, Cordelia has been digging the hole for a while, and has collected boards to cover the hole with. "They pick me up by my the underarms and the feet and lower me in into the hole. They arrange the boards over the top. The daylight air disappears, and there's the sound of dirt hitting the boards†¦ Up above outside I can here their voices, and then I can't here them. I lie there wondering when it will be time to come out. Nothing happens. When I was put into the hole I new it was a game; now I know it is not one." Here were we see the Physical abuse, just one of the many harsh incidents that takes place in Elaine's Childhood. As time carries on in the book we notice that the relationship between the girls has changed a great deal.

Organisational Culture- analysis of Oticon Essay

INTRODUCTION Oticon, a Danish company founded in 1904 was the first company in the world to invent an instrument to help the hearing impaired. In the 1970’s, Oticon was the world’s number one manufacturer of the â€Å"behind the ear† hearing aids. During the 1970’s and 1980’s as the market for â€Å"in the ear† hearing aid grew, Oticon’s fortune suddenly declined and they lost money and market share. The main problem for all of this was that Oticon was a very traditional, departmentalized and slow-moving company. Even though Oticon had 15 sites and 95 distributorships around the world, Oticon was operating in a market dominated by Siemens, Phillips, Sony, 3M and Panasonic and most importantly, Oticon manufactured the â€Å"behind the ear† hearing aid but its customers preferred the â€Å"in the ear† product. Oticon also specialized in analogue technology whilst its customers were moving towards digital technology. In 1988, a new President of Oticon was appointed, Lars Kolind. With his appointment, he worked hard to turn the situation of Oticon around. Kolind implemented cost-cutting measures; he pared the company down, cut staff and increased efficiency, and reduced the price of a hearing aid by 20%. Nevertheless, this still did not achieve the results he wanted. He never gave up. He had been searching for a sustainable competitive advantage for Oticon. He wanted to create a new way of running a business. One that could be more creative, faster and cost effective and also compensate for technological excellence, capital and general resources which Oticon lacked. Kolind believed that Oticon could no longer compete with its technologically advanced competitors. By reinventing itself, Oticon showed that it could. Oticon drastically changed its organizational structure, ways of working and culture to let loose the human potential of the company. Kolind created a vision of a service-based organization and pursued it to gain a competitive edge. Employee involvement is crucial to successful change; especially in situations as Oticon’s that require attitudinal and cultural change. Planned and emergent perspectives stress that this is a slow, learning process. Rapid organizational transformations can only be successful if focus is on structural as well as cultural change. Kanter _et al_ emphasized that an organization’s structure can be changed relatively quickly through a ‘Bold Stroke’ but that cultural change can only be achieved by a ‘Long March’ requiring extensive participation over time. Oticon’s transformation was that of a rapid organizational change, which was based on the vision imposed on the company in a directive fashion by the CEO. This lead to the widespread change of attitudes and behaviours. Kolind’s vision was the reason for this rapid change in attitudes across Oticon. A more planned approach, facilitated by this change in attitudes was used to achieve this rapid structural change. This was then followed by a period of emergent change where staff had to develop and adjust to new ways of working with and behaving towards each other. Schmuck and Miles (1971) argue that the level of involvement required in a project is dependant on the impact of the change on people concerned. Building on earlier work by Harrison (1970), Huse (1980) developed this difference further. He categorized change interventions along with continuum based on the ‘depth of intervention, ranging from the ‘shallow level’ to the ‘deepest level’. The greater the depth of intervention, Huse argues, the more it becomes concerned with the psychological make-up and personality of the individual, and the greater the need for full involvement of individuals if they are to accept the changes. Therefore, linking levels of involvement to the types of change proposed is necessary. The key is that, the greater the effect on the individual, especially in terms of psychological constructs and values, the deeper the level of involvement required if successful behaviour change is to be achieved. The theory of cognitive dissonance of Burnes and James (1995) helps in seeking to understand and explain why major rapid attitudinal changes at Oticon were successful without a great deal of initial involvement. The theory of cognitive dissonance states that people want to behave in  accordance with their attitudes and usually will take corrective action to alleviate the dissonance and achieve balance. At Oticon, fundamental attitudinal change was achieved relatively quickly because management and employee recognized the need for change and saw why new vision is the only hope for the company’s survival. ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE, or CORPORATE CULTURE, comprises the attitudes, experiences, beliefs and values of an organization. It has been defined as â€Å"the specific collection of values and norms that are shared by people and groups in an organization and that control the way they interact with each other and with stakeholders outside the organization. An ORGANISATION’S CULTURE is affected by a number of factors including: The ENVIRONMENT in which the organisation operates. Internally, this is often conveyed by its physical layout which can, foe example, reflect warm friendliness or cold efficiency. The BELIEFS, VALUES AND NORMS of the employees within the organisation, particularly those communicated by top management. The formal and informal LEADERS who personify the organisation’s culture. The PROCEDURES that have to be followed and the behaviour expected of people within the organisation. The network of COMMUNICATIONS which disseminates the corporate image and culture. OTHER FACTORS could include the oeganisation’s size , history, ownership and technology. MODEL OF CHANGE- SEQUENCE OF EVENTS (SOURCE:MANAGEMENT. RICHARD L DAFT- 6TH ED.) Corporate culture is something that is very hard to change and employees need time to get used to the new way of organizing. Many people are not willing to change unless they perceive a problem or a crisis. For companies with a very strong and specific culture it will be even harder to change. Cummings & Worley (2005, p. 491 – 492) give the following six guidelines for cultural change, these changes are in line with the eight distinct stages mentioned by Kotter (1995, p. 2)3: Formulate a clear strategic vision In order to make a cultural change effective a clear vision of the firm’s new strategy, shared values and behaviours is needed. This vision provides the intention and direction for the culture change Display Top-management commitment It is very important to keep in mind that culture change must be managed from the top of the organization, as willingness to change of the senior management is an important indicator. The top of the organization should be very much in favour of the change in order to actually implement the change in the rest of the organization. De Caluwà © & Vermaak provide a framework with five different ways of thinking about change. Model culture change at the highest level In order to show that the management team is in favour of the change, the change has to be notable at first at this level. The behaviour of the management needs to symbolize the kinds of values and behaviours that should be realized in the rest of the company. It is important that the management shows the strengths of the current culture as well, it must be made clear that the current organizational does not need radical changes, but just a few adjustments. Modify the organization to support organizational change. The fourth step is to modify the organization to support organizational change. Select and socialize newcomers and terminate deviants A way to implement a culture is to connect it to organizational membership, people can be selected and terminate in terms of their fit with the new culture Develop ethical and legal sensitivity. Changes in culture can lead to tensions between organizational and individual interests, which can result in ethical and legal problems for practitioners. This is particularly relevant for changes in employee integrity, control, equitable treatment and job security. FORCES CAUSING AND RESISTING CHANGE WITHIN AN ORGANISATION (SOURCE: AN INTEGRATED APPROACH TO BUSINESS STUDIES- 3RD ED- BRUCE R JEWELL) NEED/ REASONS FOR CHANGE. In order to survive and prosper in a competitive and rapidly changing environment, organisations also need to change. This may be brought about by many influencing factors which may be internally within the organisation or in external environment of the organisation. EXTERNAL FORCES originate in all environmental sectors, including customers, competitors, technology, economic forces and the international arena. EXTERNAL INFLUENCES: POLITICAL factors including legislation or other government measures. Organisations are forced to change in order to meet, for example, health and safety, environmental or consumer protection requirements. ECONOMIC factors such as changes in levels of unemployment and interest rates which can have a major impact on demand. SOCIAL factors including changes in life styles and environmental issues which organisations must respond to if they are not to lose out to competitors. TECHNOLOGICAL progress such as word processing in the office or robots in the factory can change working materials, methods and practices and create the need for new skills. TRADE UNIONS can influence wage rates, working conditions and other aspects of industrial relations. COMPETITION and changes in consumer tastes and demand all impact on business organisations, making change necessary in order to respond. MEDIA reports which can influence consumers’ and employees’ perceptions of an organisation and its goods and services. INTERNAL FORCES for change arise from internal activities and decisions. If top managers select a goal of rapid company growth, internal actions will have to be made to meet that growth. New departments or technologies will be created. Demands by employees, labour unions and production inefficiencies all can generate a force to which management must respond with change. INTERNAL INFLUENCES: NEW PRODUCTS OR SERVICES which require change in order to introduce them. MANAGEMENT CHANGES, due perhaps to a merger, take over or the appointment of  new staff. This may affect the management style and culture of the organisation. QUALITY ASSURANCE SYSTEMS which are becoming increasingly important in organisations in order to meet changing customer expectations. PRODUCTIVITY AND PROFITABILITY IMPROVEMENTS which often require change in systems or procedures in order to control or reduce costs and/or increase output. CUSTOMER SERVICE is now more crucial than ever for organisations in competitive markets because they can only survive and prosper if they satisfy customers. After the need for change has been perceived and communicated, change must be initiated. This is a crucial stage of change management- the stage where ideas that solve perceived needs are developed. Responses that an organisation can make are to search for or create a change to adopt. IMPLEMENTING CHANGE One frustration for managers is that employees often seem to resist change for no apparent reason. To effectively manage the implementation process, managers should be aware of the reasons for employee resistance and e prepared to use techniques for obtaining employee cooperation. Employees appear to resist change for several reasons and understanding them helps managers implement change more effectively. SELF-INTEREST. Employees typically resist a change they believe will take away something of value. A proposed change in job design, structure, or technology may lead to a real or perceived loss of power, prestige, pay or company benefits. The fear of personal loss is perhaps the biggest obstacle to organisational change. LACK OF UNDERSTANDING AND TRUST. Employees do not understand the intended purpose of a change or distrust the intentions behind it. UNCERTAINTY. Uncertainty is the lack of information about future events. It represents a fear of the unknown. Uncertainty is especially threatening for employees who have a low tolerance for change and fear the novel and unusual. They do not know how a change will affect them and worry about whether they will be able to meet the demands of a new procedure or technology. DIFFERENT ASSESSMENT AND GOALS. Another reason for resistance to change is that people who will be affected by innovation may assess the situation differently. Often critics voice legitimate disagreements over the proposed benefits of a change. Managers in each department pursue different goals, and an innovation may detract from performance and goal achievement for some departments. These reasons for resistance are legitimate in the eyes of the employees affected by the change. The best procedure for managers is not to ignore resistance but diagnose the reasons and design strategies to gain acceptance by users. Strategies for overcoming resistance to change typically involve two approaches: the analysis of resistance through force-field technique and the use of selective implementation tactics to overcome resistance.